Seventeenth Century Shifts: Puritanism, Restoration, and Literary Voices

This blog is written as a task assigned by the Head of the Department of English (MKBU), Prof. & Dr. Dilip Barad, aligned with our syllabus topics on seventeenth-century English literature.

Introduction

The seventeenth century in England witnessed two strikingly different literary climates: the Puritan Age (1620–1660) and the Restoration Age (1660–1700). The Puritan period, deeply shaped by religious austerity and political upheaval, reflected moral seriousness and spiritual reflection. In contrast, the Restoration era celebrated wit, pleasure, and worldly concerns, breaking away from Puritan rigidity. These shifts were not merely literary fashions; they were deeply tied to political power struggles, religious authority, and cultural transformations.

The Puritan Age (1620–1660): Faith and Its Literary Footprint

The Puritan Age in England was a period defined by intense religious conviction and a strict moral code. Following the reign of James I, the rise of Puritanism, with its emphasis on individual conscience and biblical authority, significantly influenced the political and social climate, culminating in the English Civil War and the Interregnum. This environment profoundly shaped the literature of the time.

Religious Epic and Allegory

One prominent genre was the religious epic and allegory. John Milton’s monumental Paradise Lost (1667, though conceived earlier) exemplifies this. While published after the Restoration, its genesis lies firmly within a mind steeped in Puritan theology and grappling with themes of sin, redemption, and divine justice. The poem’s grandeur and its exploration of moral choices reflect the Puritan seriousness of purpose.

Sermons, Theological Treatises, and Spiritual Autobiographies

Another significant trend was the prevalence of sermons, theological treatises, and spiritual autobiographies. Works like John Bunyan’s Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners offer personal accounts of spiritual struggles and conversions, reflecting the Puritan focus on inner experience and the individual's relationship with God. These writings, though not always considered "literary" in the traditional sense, were widely read and shaped the intellectual landscape.

Polemical Literature

Furthermore, the era saw the development of polemical literature addressing the political and religious controversies of the time. Pamphlets and tracts debated issues of church governance, royal authority, and individual liberties. While much of this writing was directly tied to immediate concerns, it honed rhetorical skills and engaged a broad reading public, contributing to a culture of literary engagement with public life.

The Restoration Age (1660–1700): Wit and Worldliness Take Center Stage

The Restoration Age, beginning with the return of Charles II in 1660, marked a dramatic shift away from Puritan austerity. A reaction against the perceived constraints of the Interregnum fueled a culture that valued wit, social interaction, and a more secular outlook. This new climate deeply influenced its literature.

Restoration Comedy (Comedy of Manners)

Restoration Comedy, often referred to as the Comedy of Manners, flourished during this period. Playwrights like William Wycherley (The Country Wife) and William Congreve (The Way of the World) crafted witty and often satirical plays that explored the intricacies of social relationships, sexual intrigue, and the foibles of the fashionable elite. These comedies celebrated clever dialogue and often challenged traditional moral values, reflecting the era's hedonistic tendencies.

Heroic Drama

Another key development was the rise of heroic drama. These plays, often written in rhyming couplets, featured larger-than-life heroes, epic conflicts, and themes of love and honor. John Dryden’s All for Love is a notable example. This genre, with its emphasis on grandeur and spectacle, mirrored the restored monarchy's desire for pomp and ceremony.

Satire

The Restoration also saw significant advancements in satire, often directed at political figures and social customs. John Dryden’s political satire Absalom and Achitophel, using biblical allegory to comment on the Exclusion Crisis, demonstrates the power of literature to engage with and critique the political landscape. Samuel Butler’s satirical poem Hudibras, though begun earlier, gained popularity during the Restoration, lampooning Puritan excesses and hypocrisy.

A Timeline of Power and Pen

Period	Major Political Events	Corresponding Literary Milestones
Puritan Age	English Civil War begins (1642); Execution of Charles I (1649); The Interregnum (Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660)	John Milton begins Paradise Lost (early stages); Publication of Anne Bradstreet's The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650); John Bunyan begins his spiritual journey and preaching (leading to later works like Grace Abounding)
Restoration Age	Restoration of Charles II (1660); The Great Plague and Fire of London (1665-1666); The Glorious Revolution (1688)	Reopening of public theaters, emergence of Restoration Comedy; Publication of John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667); Flourishing of political satire, e.g., Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel (1681)

Narrative Explanation: The Puritan Age's tumultuous political climate, marked by civil war and the absence of a monarch, fostered a literature deeply concerned with religious and moral questions. The closure of theaters in 1642 by the Puritan Parliament limited dramatic output, pushing literary energies towards religious and political prose, as well as the internal epic. The Restoration, in stark contrast, brought a renewed emphasis on social life and public entertainment. The reopening of theaters spurred the development of witty comedies that reflected the courtly culture. Political stability (initially, at least) allowed for a more direct engagement with political issues through satire and other literary forms. Milton's Paradise Lost, though rooted in Puritan thought, was published in this era of greater literary freedom, finding a wider audience in a less theocratic society.

Debate: Liberating Literature? Puritanism vs. Restoration

Prompt: "The Restoration Age liberated English literature from the constraints of Puritan moralism."

Position: Partially Agree

The statement that the Restoration Age liberated English literature from the constraints of Puritan moralism holds significant truth, but it's crucial to acknowledge the nuances. While the Restoration undoubtedly ushered in a period of greater stylistic and thematic freedom, the influence of Puritanism did not entirely vanish.

Firstly, the reopening of theaters in 1660 was a direct rejection of Puritan prohibitions on public entertainment. The flourishing of Restoration Comedy, with its often risqué plots and satirical treatment of social mores, stands in stark contrast to the didacticism often favored by Puritan writers. Plays like Wycherley’s The Country Wife, with its exploration of sexual hypocrisy, would have been unthinkable during the Interregnum. This theatrical revival undeniably expanded the scope of literary expression.
Secondly, the Restoration witnessed a shift in literary patronage and audience. The court and the aristocracy became key influencers, favoring wit, elegance, and a more secular outlook. This led to the development of genres like heroic drama and sophisticated satire that catered to these tastes. Dryden’s career, spanning both dramatic and satirical works, exemplifies this shift in literary focus, moving away from the intense religious introspection prevalent in much Puritan writing.
However, thirdly, the moral and religious concerns of the Puritan era did not simply disappear. While not the dominant mode, religious writing continued, and even within Restoration literature, there were often undercurrents of moral commentary. For example, while Restoration comedies might satirize social vices, they sometimes also offered implicit moral judgments. Furthermore, the enduring influence of works like Paradise Lost demonstrates that the intellectual and theological questions raised during the Puritan Age continued to resonate.
Finally, to suggest complete liberation overlooks the fact that the Restoration brought its own set of constraints, albeit different ones. The patronage system, for instance, could limit artistic freedom, and the focus on a particular social elite narrowed the range of experiences and perspectives represented in literature. While the shackles of strict Puritan morality were loosened, new social and political dynamics shaped literary production.

Therefore, while the Restoration Age undeniably brought a significant expansion of literary themes, styles, and public engagement, marking a clear departure from the intense moralism of the Puritan era, it would be an oversimplification to characterize it as a complete liberation. The legacy of Puritan thought persisted, and new forms of influence shaped the literary landscape.

A Hypothetical Encounter: Milton and Dryden in 1670

Setting: A London coffee house, 1670.

Characters:

John Milton: (61 years old), author of Paradise Lost, blind, still holding firm to many Puritan ideals.
John Dryden: (39 years old), Poet Laureate, successful playwright and satirist, embodying the spirit of the Restoration.

Dryden: (Approaching Milton's table with a courteous bow) Mr. Milton, it is an honor. I have long admired the majesty of your verse, even if our muses often dance to different tunes.

Milton: (Turning his ear towards the voice) Mr. Dryden. I recognize the timbre. A poet of the newer age, I understand. Pray, be seated.

Dryden: Thank you. I was just remarking to a friend on the power of your Paradise Lost. A truly epic undertaking. Tell me, sir, what was your chief aim in crafting such a monumental work? Surely, to instruct as well as to delight?

Milton: Indeed, Mr. Dryden. My purpose was “To justify the ways of God to men.” To explore the profound truths of creation, the fall, and redemption. Literature, in my view, must serve a higher purpose, to elevate the soul and guide humanity towards virtue and understanding of the divine will. The frivolities and licentiousness I see in some of the current theatrical offerings… (He pauses, a hint of disapproval in his tone).

Dryden: (Nodding slightly) I understand your sentiment, sir. But the times have changed. After the austerity of the Interregnum, the people crave amusement, a reflection of their social lives, their wit, and yes, perhaps even their follies. Our comedies aim to entertain, to hold a mirror up to society, allowing us to laugh at ourselves and perhaps, indirectly, learn a thing or two about human nature. And our tragedies, like my Tyrannic Love, explore the passions and complexities of human experience, often with a moral underpinning, albeit less overtly stated than in your epic.

Milton: But does not such entertainment risk corrupting the soul, leading it astray from true piety? Surely, art should inspire reverence and contemplation of eternal truths, not merely fleeting amusement or the glorification of worldly pleasures.

Dryden: Perhaps, yet I would argue that literature can serve multiple purposes. Even in satire or comedic lightness, there is reflection, critique, and the subtle shaping of moral and social consciousness. One might say our approaches differ: you as the prophet of moral truth, I as a commentator on the manners and follies of society. Both roles, I think, are necessary in different measures for the enrichment of letters and human understanding.

Milton: A fair point. Perhaps the muses have many voices, and it is for posterity to judge the resonance of each. We shall see whether your satire and comedies or my epic have the greater endurance.

Dryden: Indeed, sir. And may the art of poetry, in all its forms, continue to challenge, delight, and instruct humankind.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the seventeenth century in England was marked by extraordinary political, religious, and cultural shifts that profoundly shaped literary production. The Puritan Age, emphasizing moral and spiritual seriousness, produced works that probed deep theological and ethical questions. The Restoration Age, in contrast, celebrated social life, wit, and the theatrical imagination, giving rise to new genres, styles, and modes of critique. Both periods, despite their differences, enriched English literature and left a legacy that continues to inform our understanding of the interplay between society, politics, and the written word.

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Sanjay Rathod